Public good vs commercial interest → 專利獨佔可能抬高價格、加劇醫療不平等,引發社會正義質疑。
Moore 與 bioprospecting → 來源個人/族群的遺傳材料所生利潤是否共享,是利益分配核心爭點。
Ethical Appraisal 倫理評價 (issues.org/sagoff/)
Joint Appeal (18 May 1995) → 約 200 宗教領袖呼籲暫停人畜專利:"humans and animals are creations of God, not humans... should not be patented as human inventions";與 product-of-nature 先例一致。
Industry response → 專利只是鼓勵進步的暫時法定壟斷,無道德/神學意涵。Carl Feldbaum(BIO 主席):"A patent on a gene does not confer ownership of that gene to the patent holder…"。
Two purposes of patent law → (1) natural property right:John Locke "Justice gives every man a title to the product of his honest industry";宗教領袖因視上帝為自然作者而反感。(2) utilitarian 誘因:暫時壟斷鼓勵有益社會之投資。
1928 GE tungsten → 上訴法院:GE 不能專利純鎢,僅其提純方法可;鎢為 product of nature。
Chakrabarty (1980) → 5–4 准雜交菌,因 "his discovery is not nature's handiwork, but his own";但仍重申 "a new mineral discovered in the earth or a new plant discovered in the wild is not patentable subject matter"。
PTO policy shift → 其後 PTO 常態發產品-of-nature 專利(基因、片段、細胞株、人蛋白)。1987 Genetics Institute 專利人類 erythropoietin (EPO)(165 氨基酸促紅血球生成);Scripps Clinic 專利 human factor VIII:C(自血抽取之凝血劑)。結論:gene patents "confer commercial rights, not ownership"。
Bridge between the two camps → 將基因專利視為暫時商業壟斷而非所有權,可繞開 Locke 式道德爭議,成為產業與宗教領袖的共通點。
1928 / 1980 contrast → 1928 純鎢不專利(產品-of-nature);1980 Chakrabarty 雜交菌可專利("not nature's handiwork, but his own"),顯示門檻由「是否天然」轉向「是否人為改造」。
Clinical / Business Logic 臨床與商業邏輯
FTO complex → 有專利≠能商業化。Wuhan Institute 就 Remdesivir 之 use 專利仍被 Gilead composition-of-matter 專利擋下。
Global IP strategy essential → EU 可專利(具功能之分離基因)在 US 可能遭拒;策略須視製造、販售、R&D 地點而定。
Myriad & Mayo legacy (US) → 診斷新創路徑更窄:須證明方法超越觀察自然關聯;傾向以 trade secret 保護關聯/數據,同時就新穎試劑、機器、軟體取得專利。
Informed consent non-negotiable → Moore 警告:臨試與組織使用之同意程序須嚴密並揭露商業利益。
product-of-nature 與 markedly different 貫穿 Chakrabarty→Myriad;§101 inventive-concept(Breyer "apply it")貫穿 Mayo 診斷案。
Moore 區分 consent 與 ownership;OncoMouse 顯示同發明在 US/EPO/Canada 三種結果。
倫理評價三要點:Joint Appeal (1995)、Feldbaum "commercial rights not ownership"、Locke 自然財產權 vs utilitarian 誘因。
One-line Summary
English: Biotech patenting sits on the fault line between "discovery" (not patentable) and "invention" (patentable), and five landmark cases plus the TRIPS / ordre-public framework show the line is drawn differently across the US, EU and China — with real consequences for what a company can own, where it can operate, and how it must handle consent, FTO and ethics.
中文邏輯:生物科技專利卡在「發現不專利、發明才專利」的界線;Chakrabarty、Moore、OncoMouse、Myriad、Mayo 五判例與 TRIPS / ordre public 框架顯示美歐中畫線不同,直接決定企業能擁有何物、在哪營運,以及同意、FTO 與倫理如何處理。